Key Takeaways
- Core idea: Bearing selection means matching the bearing type, size, arrangement, lubrication, seals, fits, and clearance to the actual shaft load, speed, environment, and life requirement.
- Engineering use: Mechanical designers use bearing selection to support rotating shafts, reduce friction, control axial position, manage thermal expansion, and improve machine reliability.
- What controls it: The most important inputs are radial load, axial load, combined loading, speed, duty cycle, desired life, space limits, temperature, contamination, and mounting conditions.
- Practical check: A bearing that passes a catalog load calculation can still fail if lubrication, alignment, shaft fit, housing fit, sealing, or installation method is wrong.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Bearing selection is the process of choosing a bearing that can support the required shaft loads, speed, life, stiffness, alignment, lubrication, and environment without premature failure. Good bearing selection is not just picking a ball bearing or roller bearing; it is a mechanical design decision that connects loads, fits, mounting, sealing, and maintenance into one working system.
Bearing Selection Workflow Diagram
Notice that the bearing type is only one step in the process. The final design also depends on how the bearing is installed, lubricated, protected, and allowed to move as the shaft expands.
What Is Bearing Selection?
Bearing selection is the engineering process of choosing a bearing for a shaft, wheel, roller, gearbox, motor, fan, pump, conveyor, or machine element so that motion is supported with acceptable friction, wear, heat, stiffness, and reliability. The selected bearing must carry the required load while fitting the available shaft diameter, housing geometry, speed range, lubrication method, and maintenance plan.
In mechanical design, a bearing is rarely an isolated part. It interacts with the shaft, housing, seals, lubricant, retaining features, shoulders, fasteners, thermal growth, and the load path through the machine. That is why a correct bearing type can still be a poor design if the arrangement traps thermal expansion, the housing fit is too loose, the lubricant overheats, or the bearing is mounted through the rolling elements.
The goal is not to choose the strongest possible bearing. The goal is to choose a bearing system that is strong enough, fast enough, manufacturable, maintainable, and reliable for the actual duty cycle.
Load Direction Drives the First Bearing Choice
The first technical decision is understanding how the load enters the bearing. A rotating shaft may see radial load from belts, gears, pulleys, weight, or process forces. It may also see axial load from thrust, helical gears, fans, pumps, screws, or thermal effects. Many real designs include combined radial and axial load plus a bending moment caused by bearing spacing or overhung loads.
Radial loads
Radial loads act perpendicular to the shaft centerline. Deep groove ball bearings, cylindrical roller bearings, spherical roller bearings, and needle roller bearings are common radial-load choices depending on load magnitude, speed, shaft size, and misalignment.
Axial and combined loads
Axial load acts along the shaft centerline. Angular contact ball bearings, tapered roller bearings, thrust bearings, and paired bearing arrangements are often used when axial force is significant. A common mistake is assuming a general-purpose radial bearing can handle sustained thrust without checking the catalog limits and arrangement.
Moment loads and bearing spacing
Moment load is often controlled by bearing spacing, shaft stiffness, and load location. A pulley, gear, wheel, or fan mounted far outside the bearing span can increase bearing reactions even when the applied force looks modest. Moving bearings farther apart or relocating the load can sometimes improve the design more than simply choosing a larger bearing.
Bearing Selection Decision Matrix
A decision matrix helps narrow the first bearing family before detailed catalog sizing. It should not replace catalog calculations, but it quickly connects the design condition to a reasonable starting point.
| Design condition | Good starting point | Reasoning |
|---|---|---|
| Moderate radial load, high speed, compact machine | Deep groove ball bearing | Low friction, broad availability, good speed capability, and acceptable axial capacity for many light-duty shaft designs. |
| Combined radial and axial load | Angular contact ball bearing or tapered roller bearing | Both can handle combined loading better than a general radial bearing when the arrangement is designed correctly. |
| Heavy radial load and high stiffness | Cylindrical roller bearing or spherical roller bearing | Roller contact provides higher radial capacity and stiffness than many ball-bearing choices. |
| Misalignment or shaft deflection expected | Spherical roller bearing or self-aligning bearing | These bearing families tolerate angular misalignment better than rigid bearing styles. |
| Tight radial space around the shaft | Needle roller bearing | Needle rollers provide high radial load capacity in a small radial envelope. |
| Mostly axial load | Thrust bearing, angular contact bearing, or tapered roller pair | The correct choice depends on thrust magnitude, speed, radial load, and whether thrust reverses direction. |
| Dirty, low-speed, shock-prone, or oscillating motion | Plain bearing or bushing | A bushing may tolerate contamination, shock, and sliding motion better than a rolling bearing in some applications. |
If the load direction is unclear, solve that first. Most poor bearing selections start with the wrong assumption about whether the bearing is mainly carrying radial load, axial load, combined load, or moment load.
Bearing Type Selection Table
Bearing type selection should start with load direction, speed, stiffness, misalignment, space, and maintenance. The table below summarizes common choices used in mechanical design. Final catalog selection still depends on the exact bearing series, internal geometry, rating, lubrication, and manufacturer data.
| Bearing type | Best fit | Watch for |
|---|---|---|
| Deep groove ball bearing | General-purpose shafts, motors, fans, light gearboxes, moderate radial load, high speed, and modest axial load. | Not ideal for heavy shock, large misalignment, or high sustained thrust unless the specific bearing rating supports it. |
| Angular contact ball bearing | Combined radial and axial loads, higher speed spindles, pumps, and applications needing axial stiffness. | Direction of thrust matters. Paired arrangements may be needed for bidirectional axial load or preload control. |
| Cylindrical roller bearing | High radial load, good radial stiffness, and moderate to high speed in gearboxes and industrial machines. | Axial capacity depends on design. Misalignment and edge loading must be managed carefully. |
| Tapered roller bearing | Combined radial and axial load, high stiffness, wheels, gear shafts, and applications where preload or endplay is controlled. | Mounting, preload, lubrication, and heat generation are critical. Incorrect adjustment can shorten life quickly. |
| Spherical roller bearing | Heavy radial load, shock load, and applications where shaft deflection or housing misalignment is expected. | Usually larger and may not be the best high-speed choice. Lubrication and sealing are important in dirty environments. |
| Needle roller bearing | High radial load in a very small radial space, compact gearboxes, linkages, and tight packaging. | Requires good shaft surface quality and alignment. Axial load usually needs separate support. |
| Thrust bearing | Primarily axial load, screw mechanisms, turntables, low-to-moderate speed thrust support, and vertical shaft loads. | Radial support may need a separate bearing. Thrust bearings are not automatically suitable for combined load. |
| Plain bearing or bushing | Low-speed sliding motion, dirty environments, shock, oscillation, low cost, or situations where rolling elements are not ideal. | Friction, wear, lubrication, material compatibility, and heat buildup usually control the design. |
Bearing Arrangement: Fixed, Floating, and Paired Bearings
A shaft usually needs more than a bearing type; it needs a bearing arrangement. The arrangement determines which bearing locates the shaft axially, which bearing allows thermal movement, how axial load is reacted, and how much stiffness the shaft support system provides.
Fixed or locating bearing
The fixed bearing controls the shaft’s axial position. It may react axial load in one or both directions, depending on the bearing type and retaining features. Angular contact pairs, tapered roller pairs, and some deep groove bearing arrangements can serve this function when selected and mounted correctly.
Floating bearing
The floating bearing supports radial load while allowing axial movement. This prevents thermal growth from forcing the shaft into the bearing set and creating unintended preload. In long shafts, high-temperature equipment, pumps, fans, and industrial machinery, the floating side can be the difference between smooth operation and repeated bearing failures.
Paired bearings
Paired bearings are used when the system needs bidirectional thrust support, higher stiffness, controlled preload, or improved moment capacity. Back-to-back, face-to-face, and tandem arrangements behave differently, so the arrangement should match the axial load direction, shaft deflection, mounting method, and serviceability needs.
Bearing Size and L10 Life Basics
Once the bearing family and arrangement make sense, the bearing size is checked against dynamic load rating, equivalent dynamic load, speed, and target life. The common fatigue-life relationship is useful because it shows the basic trend: bearing life changes rapidly as load changes.
In this simplified form, \(L_{10}\) is the basic rating life in millions of revolutions, \(C\) is the dynamic load rating, \(P\) is the equivalent dynamic bearing load, and \(p\) is the life exponent. For many ball bearings, \(p=3\). For many roller bearings, \(p=\frac{10}{3}\). Actual manufacturer procedures may include additional factors for reliability, lubrication, contamination, material, and operating conditions.
The hour-based form converts the calculated life into operating hours using speed \(n\) in rpm. Use consistent force units for \(C\) and \(P\), and remember that \(L_{10h}\) is still a basic rating-life estimate rather than a guarantee of field life.
- \(C\) Dynamic load rating from the bearing catalog, usually listed in N, kN, lbf, or similar force units.
- \(P\) Equivalent dynamic bearing load that converts radial and axial loading into a catalog-style life input.
- \(p\) Life exponent based on bearing type; commonly 3 for ball bearings and 10/3 for roller bearings.
- \(n\) Rotational speed in rpm, used to convert life in revolutions into operating hours.
Why the load estimate matters
Because \(P\) is in the denominator, small load increases can sharply reduce calculated life. A belt tension estimate, gear force, shaft overhang, thrust component, or shock factor that is ignored during selection can make a bearing look acceptable on paper but unreliable in service.
Static capacity is a separate check
Dynamic life does not replace the static load rating check. Static rating matters when the bearing is exposed to heavy shock, low-speed high-load operation, press loads, handling impacts, or parked equipment loads that can permanently deform raceways or rolling elements.
Catalog Values You Must Check Before Final Selection
After the concept-level choice is made, the exact bearing series must be checked against catalog data. This is where many designs fail: the bearing family may be reasonable, but the selected part may have the wrong clearance, seal, speed rating, cage, or fit recommendation for the application.
| Catalog value | What it tells you | Why it matters in bearing selection |
|---|---|---|
| Bore, outside diameter, and width | Basic envelope dimensions for shaft and housing design. | The bearing must fit the shaft, housing, shoulder geometry, retaining method, and available assembly space. |
| Dynamic load rating \(C\) | Rating used in fatigue-life calculations. | Higher \(C\) improves calculated life, but only if the bearing type, lubrication, speed, and mounting are also suitable. |
| Static load rating \(C_0\) | Capacity related to permanent deformation under static or peak load. | Important for shock, parked loads, startup loads, press loading, and low-speed high-load conditions. |
| Limiting speed and reference speed | Speed guidance based on heat, lubricant, cage, and bearing design. | A bearing that is strong enough may still overheat or lose lubricant film at the required rpm. |
| Internal clearance class | Initial bearing clearance before installation and operation. | Fits, temperature gradients, and operating load can reduce clearance and create unintended preload. |
| Seal or shield option | Protection method built into the bearing. | Seals improve contamination resistance but can add friction, heat, and speed limitations. |
| Cage type and material | Rolling element spacing and retention design. | High speed, shock, temperature, and lubrication can make cage design important. |
| Tolerance class | Manufacturing precision of the bearing dimensions and running accuracy. | Precision spindles, low vibration machines, and high-speed equipment may need tighter tolerance classes. |
| Shaft and housing fit guidance | Recommended fits for the bearing rings based on load and rotation. | Correct fits prevent creep, fretting, cracked rings, excessive clearance loss, and difficult assembly. |
| Lubrication and temperature notes | Grease, oil, viscosity, temperature range, and relubrication guidance. | The lubricant often controls life in real machines more than the basic load rating. |
Sealed, Shielded, and Open Bearings
Bearing protection is a selection decision, not an accessory detail. The right choice depends on contamination, speed, temperature, lubricant access, friction limits, and whether the bearing will be maintained or treated as sealed-for-life.
| Protection type | Best use | Tradeoff |
|---|---|---|
| Open bearing | Clean equipment with external lubrication, oil bath, circulating oil, or high-speed designs where low drag matters. | More vulnerable to dust, moisture, and debris unless external seals protect the housing. |
| Shielded bearing | Light contamination protection with lower friction than many contact seals. | Shields reduce particle entry but are not the same as a fully sealed bearing. |
| Sealed bearing | Dusty, lightly wet, low-maintenance, or difficult-to-access applications. | Contact seals can add friction and heat, and may reduce speed capability. |
| External seal or labyrinth | Harsh environments, washdown, abrasive dust, outdoor machines, and industrial housings. | Requires more space and housing design, but may protect the bearing better than relying only on integral seals. |
If the bearing is in a dirty environment, do not only increase the load rating. First check whether contamination control, seal design, grease purge, or housing protection is the real life-limiting issue.
Selection Factors That Change the Final Bearing
Two designs with the same radial load can require different bearings if one is high speed, one is exposed to washdown, one has high temperature, or one cannot be relubricated. These factors often decide whether the design should use a sealed bearing, open bearing, grease lubrication, oil lubrication, higher internal clearance, special material, or a different bearing family.
| Selection factor | Why it matters | Engineering implication |
|---|---|---|
| Speed and heat generation | Higher speed increases heat, lubricant shear, and cage stress. | Check limiting speed, lubrication method, operating temperature, and whether seals add too much friction. |
| Lubrication | Lubricant separates surfaces, reduces wear, removes heat, and protects against corrosion. | Choose grease, oil bath, oil mist, circulating oil, or sealed-for-life construction based on speed, heat, access, and maintenance. |
| Contamination | Dust, water, abrasive particles, and process debris can damage raceways and lubricant. | Use seals, shields, external labyrinth seals, purge grease, stainless materials, or a different bearing concept when contamination dominates. |
| Internal clearance | Clearance changes after fitting, temperature rise, and operating load. | Too little clearance can create heat and preload; too much can increase vibration, noise, and shaft movement. |
| Shaft and housing fits | Fits control creep, fretting, mounting force, and how load is transferred into the bearing rings. | Rotating load, stationary load, housing material, temperature, and assembly method affect fit choice. |
| Misalignment and deflection | Shaft bending, housing error, and base distortion can create edge loading. | Self-aligning or spherical designs may be needed, or the support structure may need to be stiffened. |
| Electrical current through bearings | Motor drives and grounding problems can create electrical discharge damage. | Insulated bearings, grounding brushes, proper motor practices, or alternate bearing designs may be needed. |
| Maintenance access | A bearing that requires relubrication is a poor choice if maintenance cannot reach it. | Use sealed bearings, remote grease lines, accessible housings, or maintenance-friendly arrangements where downtime matters. |
Worked Bearing Selection Example
Consider a belt-driven shaft supported by two bearings. The shaft carries a pulley outside the left bearing, rotates continuously, and operates in a dusty indoor environment. The first instinct might be to choose a common deep groove ball bearing, but the overhung pulley load, belt tension, and contamination need to be reviewed before that decision is final.
Qualitative selection logic
The belt creates radial load and a bending moment because the pulley is overhung. The support reactions at the bearings may be higher than the pulley force alone. If there is no meaningful thrust load, the axial requirement may be modest, but the fixed bearing still needs to control shaft location.
For moderate load and higher speed, a deep groove ball bearing may be a good starting point. If the radial load is heavy, shock is present, or shaft stiffness is limited, a cylindrical roller, spherical roller, or larger bearing series may be more appropriate.
Simple numerical L10 check
Assume a candidate ball bearing has a dynamic load rating of \(C=9.5 \text{ kN}\), an equivalent dynamic load of \(P=1.8 \text{ kN}\), a speed of \(n=1750 \text{ rpm}\), and a ball-bearing life exponent of \(p=3\).
This gives about 147 million revolutions of basic rating life. Converting to hours:
The engineering interpretation matters more than the arithmetic. About 1,400 hours may be too low for continuous industrial equipment, but it might be acceptable for intermittent-duty equipment depending on maintenance cost, replacement access, reliability target, and operating schedule. The next design move could be choosing a higher-rated bearing, reducing the load, changing pulley location, increasing bearing spacing, or improving the arrangement.
In many shaft designs, the best improvement is not a bigger bearing. It may be reducing pulley overhang, increasing bearing spacing, improving sealing, correcting shaft fits, or adding a floating side to prevent thermal preload.
Senior Engineer Bearing Selection Checklist
Use this checklist as a design review pass before releasing a bearing selection. It is intended to catch the issues that do not always show up in a simple load-rating check.
Define the application → calculate radial and axial load → identify shock and duty cycle → choose bearing type → choose fixed/floating or paired arrangement → check L10 life and static capacity → verify speed, lubrication, seals, fits, clearance, and mounting → review field service conditions.
| Review check | What to look for | Why it matters |
|---|---|---|
| Load direction | Radial, axial, combined, moment, reversing, shock, and overhung loads. | Wrong load assumptions lead to the wrong bearing family, wrong arrangement, or unrealistic life estimate. |
| Bearing arrangement | Which bearing locates the shaft and which bearing allows axial movement. | Thermal expansion can create unintended preload if both ends are axially trapped. |
| Life and static rating | L10 life, equivalent dynamic load, static capacity, startup load, and peak load. | A bearing can pass fatigue life but fail from brinelling, shock, or short-duration overload. |
| Lubrication plan | Grease or oil type, viscosity, relubrication interval, access, temperature, and compatibility. | Many bearing failures are lubrication failures rather than pure strength failures. |
| Sealing and environment | Dust, water, chemicals, washdown, abrasive particles, corrosion, and outdoor exposure. | Contamination can dominate bearing life even when the load rating appears conservative. |
| Fits and clearance | Shaft fit, housing fit, ring rotation, thermal growth, internal clearance, and preload risk. | Incorrect fits can cause creep, fretting, cracked rings, excessive heat, or loose operation. |
| Mounting method | Press force path, heating method, shoulders, locknuts, snap rings, spacers, and installation tools. | Pressing through the rolling elements or damaging seals during assembly can ruin a new bearing before startup. |
| Root-cause review | Failure history, temperature, vibration, lubricant condition, contamination, shaft marks, and housing damage. | Repeated failure usually means the system has a design, maintenance, or installation problem beyond basic bearing size. |
Bearing Failure Symptoms and Troubleshooting Checks
A failure-symptom table helps connect field problems back to selection and installation decisions. The point is not to diagnose every failure from one symptom, but to avoid replacing the same bearing repeatedly without checking the real cause.
| Symptom | Likely bearing-related causes | What to check |
|---|---|---|
| High operating temperature | Too much preload, reduced clearance, excessive grease, wrong lubricant, overload, or seal friction. | Check fits, clearance class, grease fill, speed, seal type, load estimate, and housing temperature trend. |
| Noise at startup | Brinelling, contamination, poor mounting, damaged raceways, or lack of lubricant film. | Inspect raceways, rolling elements, lubricant cleanliness, installation force path, and storage/handling damage. |
| Repeated seal damage | Misalignment, shaft runout, poor shaft finish, wrong seal type, or pressure/washdown exposure. | Check shaft surface finish, runout, housing alignment, seal compatibility, and environmental exposure. |
| Fretting at shaft or housing seat | Loose fit, ring creep, vibration, or load direction mismatch. | Check shaft tolerance, housing tolerance, rotating load condition, and whether the bearing ring is moving on its seat. |
| Short life despite high load rating | Contamination, misalignment, poor lubrication, shock loading, or incorrect equivalent load estimate. | Review lubricant condition, seal condition, shaft alignment, actual load path, duty cycle, and failure pattern. |
| Early failure after installation | Improper press method, damaged seals, wrong tools, dirt during assembly, or bearing cocked during mounting. | Review installation procedure, tool contact points, cleanliness, shoulder geometry, and whether force passed through rolling elements. |
Engineering Judgment and Field Reality
Catalog ratings are important, but real equipment adds uncertainty. Loads may be higher than expected because of belt tension, misalignment, unbalance, poor base stiffness, thermal growth, process upset, shock loading, or incorrect assembly. Bearings also live inside a maintenance system: if grease is not applied, seals are damaged, or contamination enters the housing, a mathematically acceptable bearing may fail early.
Experienced designers also think about what happens after installation. Can the bearing be removed without destroying the shaft? Can a technician reach the grease fitting? Is there space for a puller? Is the floating bearing actually free to float after housing distortion, corrosion, paint, or thermal expansion? These details often decide whether a design is reliable in service.
If a bearing repeatedly fails in the same machine, do not only upsize the bearing. Check alignment, contamination, lubrication, shaft fit, housing fit, preload, thermal movement, electrical current damage, and whether the applied load was estimated correctly.
When This Breaks Down
A simplified bearing selection workflow breaks down when the application no longer behaves like a steady, well-lubricated, well-aligned rotating shaft with predictable loads. In those cases, manufacturer catalog methods, application engineering support, testing, or more detailed analysis may be needed.
- Severe shock or vibration: static capacity, cage strength, fit, and mounting may control more than basic fatigue life.
- High temperature: lubricant life, internal clearance, material stability, and thermal expansion can control the selection.
- Dirty or wet environments: seals, shields, corrosion protection, and maintenance intervals may matter more than the bearing size.
- Very high speed: heat generation, cage design, lubrication method, balance, and limiting speed become critical.
- Poor alignment or flexible supports: shaft deflection and housing distortion can create edge loading that reduces life.
- Low-speed oscillating motion: a rolling bearing may not form normal lubrication conditions; a bushing or special bearing may be more suitable.
- Electrical current through the bearing: motor-drive applications may need insulated bearings, grounding practices, or other protection against discharge damage.
- Food-grade, vacuum, or chemically exposed equipment: lubricant, material, seal, and cleanliness requirements may dominate the normal load-based selection process.
- Precision spindle applications: preload, tolerance class, runout, cage design, thermal growth, and lubrication method often control more than basic load rating.
Common Bearing Selection Mistakes and Practical Checks
Most bearing selection mistakes come from treating the bearing as a catalog item instead of a system. The bearing, shaft, housing, lubricant, seal, arrangement, and assembly process all need to work together.
- Choosing by bore size only: the shaft diameter may fit, but the bearing may not have the right load capacity, speed rating, or thrust capability.
- Ignoring axial load: helical gears, pumps, fans, screws, and thermal effects can create thrust loads that a radial bearing arrangement may not handle well.
- Trapping thermal expansion: two tightly located bearings can create preload as the shaft grows with temperature.
- Using the wrong fit: a loose ring can creep and fret, while an overly tight fit can reduce internal clearance and overheat the bearing.
- Overlooking contamination: dust or water can shorten life faster than a modest load increase.
- Pressing through the wrong ring: installation force through the rolling elements can brinell raceways and cause early noise or failure.
Do not assume a larger bearing automatically fixes a bearing failure. If the root cause is misalignment, contamination, over-preload, poor lubrication, electrical discharge, or incorrect mounting, the larger bearing may fail for the same reason.
Useful Bearing Selection References and Design Context
Concept-level bearing selection helps narrow the bearing family and design arrangement, but final sizing depends on exact catalog data for the chosen bearing series. Engineers typically confirm ratings, speeds, clearances, fits, seals, lubrication, and mounting details before releasing the design.
- SKF bearing selection process: SKF rolling bearing selection process covers the major steps used in rolling bearing selection, including bearing type, arrangement, size, lubrication, operating temperature, speed, interfaces, sealing, mounting, and dismounting.
- Project-specific criteria: Owner requirements, reliability targets, maintenance access, duty cycle, production downtime, replacement cost, and environment often control the practical selection.
- Engineering use: Designers use catalog data after the concept-level selection to verify load rating, speed limits, shaft and housing fits, internal clearance, seal options, lubrication method, and mounting details.
Frequently Asked Questions
The first step is defining the application: the shaft motion, radial load, axial load, speed, required life, duty cycle, space limits, environment, and maintenance expectations. Bearing type and size should come after those requirements are known.
A ball bearing is usually better for moderate loads, high speed, compact general-purpose rotation, and lower friction. A roller bearing is usually better when radial load, stiffness, shock load, or bearing life demand is higher, but it may require more attention to alignment and mounting.
Axial load may require a thrust bearing, angular contact ball bearing, tapered roller bearing, or paired bearing arrangement. The best choice depends on the size and direction of the thrust load, speed, stiffness requirement, available space, and whether radial load is also present.
L10 bearing life is a statistical fatigue life estimate. It represents the life at which 90 percent of a group of identical bearings are expected to survive under the stated load, speed, lubrication, and operating assumptions.
Bearings often fail because the catalog load check was not the real limiting issue. Common causes include contamination, poor lubrication, misalignment, wrong shaft or housing fit, incorrect internal clearance, excessive preload, installation damage, shock loading, corrosion, and overheating.
Summary and Next Steps
Bearing selection is the process of matching a bearing system to the real mechanical design problem: load direction, speed, life, stiffness, environment, lubrication, mounting, and maintenance. A good selection supports the shaft while controlling friction, heat, axial location, thermal growth, and reliability.
The practical workflow starts with the application and load path, then moves through bearing type, arrangement, L10 life, static capacity, lubrication, sealing, fits, clearance, and installation. The best designs treat the bearing, shaft, housing, lubricant, and seals as one system rather than separate catalog choices.
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